Giuseppe Mazzini

Introduction

Giuseppe Mazzini was a famous Italian leader who worked to bring together Italy throughout the 19th century. He was not only a famous politician but also an activist and journalist. He played an important role in the attempt to bring Italy's split states together. which were administered by foreign countries. Mazzini was an outspoken supporter of Italian republicanism and nationalism, which impacted the development of the modern European movement towards liberty and popular democracy.

Mazzini's beliefs had a significant impact on both Italian and European republican movements. He successfully influenced the creation of the Italian Constitution and influenced the thinking of numerous leaders who came after that period. This includes well-known people like British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and American President Woodrow Wilson, who took motivation from Mazzini's ideas on Europeanism and other difficult political matters.

Early Life

Mazzini was born on 22 June 1805 in Genoa, back when it was a part of the Ligurian Republic. His father's name is Giacomo Mazzini. He was a Chiavari native and a professor at a university who supported Jacobin theology. His mother's name is Maria Drago. She was well-known for her beauty and strong religious beliefs, particularly in Jansenism. Mazzini was bright from a young age and had an intense interest in politics and literature. He started college at a very young age (age of 14) to study law, and he eventually earned his degree in 1826. He began to assist those who were unable to pay for expensive legal counsel.

Mazzini also desired to write historical novels and plays. He wrote "On Dante's Patriotic Love," his first essay that was eventually published in 1827. Between 1828 and 1829, he wrote for the Genoese journal L'Indicatore Genovese; however, Piedmontese authorities closed it down. Subsequently, he gained fame as a writer and became one of the main authors of L'Indicatore Livornese, until the government also ordered the publication to close.

Mazzini went to Tuscany in 1827 where he joined the Carbonari, a secretive political group. However, he was arrested in Genoa and brought into jail in Savona on October 31 of that same year. Early in 1831, he got out of prison, but he was only permitted to stay in a small village. He decided to move to Geneva, Switzerland, and go into exile.

Failed Rebellions

Mazzini moved to Marseille in 1831, where the Italian exiles began to like him. He regularly visited the apartment of Giuditta Bellerio Sidoli, a widow from Modenese who would later become his lover. In August 1832, Giuditta Sidoli gave birth to a boy. They named him Joseph Demosthene Adolpe Aristide, who was possibly Mazzini's son. The boy was given the name Joseph Demosthene Adolpe Aristide which is inspired by Demosthene Ollivier in honor of the people Mazzini was staying with. Giuditta and Mazzini left the kid in the Olliviers' care when they left for Switzerland in June 1833. Sadly, the child passed away in February 1835.

Mazzini created the secretive group named Young Italy. They intended to turn Italy into a single, independent country where everyone was able to have an opinion. Mazzini believed that if Italians came together, other Europeans would be inspired to support the revolution. Their main objective was to create a united, democratic republic out of all of Italy's autonomous regions.

Mazzini gained particular support for his political ambitions from several military leaders in Piedmont, Sicily, Abruzzi, Tuscany, and his native Liguria. By 1833, Italy had grown to 60,000 supporters, with branches in cities such as Genoa. In that year, Mazzini began his first attempt at insurrection, to spread it from Chambery, which at the time was a part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, to Turin, Genoa, and Alessandria.

Sadly, Vincenzo Gioberti and other rebels were arrested when the Savoy government uncovered the plot before it could be executed. The response was brutal: 12 participants were executed, and Jacopo Ruffini, a close friend of Mazzini's who supervised Giovine Italia's Genoese branch, committed suicide. Mazzini was sentenced to death.

Mazzini planned yet another outbreak for the following year while feeling anxious and under pressure due to the previous failure. The aim was for exiled Italians to travel to Piedmont from Switzerland and start a revolution; young Italian member Giuseppe Garibaldi was to do the same from Genoa. Sadly, the Piedmontese forces quickly defeated this second attempt.

In the spring of 1834, Mazzini formed a new organization called Young Europe while he was in Bern. He collaborated with other groups from Germany, Poland, and Italy who were also exiled. The main agenda of this group was that similar to how the French Revolution of 1789 had expanded the definition of individual freedom, a new revolution was now needed to achieve national freedom. According to Mazzini's vision, free states would eventually come together to create a loosely united Europe governed by a federal assembly that would protect their common interests. His goal was to destroy the European settlement achieved by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which had re-established the dominance of a small number of strong governments and slowed the emergence of additional sovereign republics. Mazzini fully emerged with the idea of a united continent where the creation of different states would be a crucial first step, even though he believed that Young Europe would come to pass in his lifetime. This commitment remained despite having issues like insufficient budget and popular support.

On May 28, 1834, Mazzini was arrested in Solothurn and the authorities kicked him out of Switzerland. After that, he shifted to Paris where he was arrested once more on July 5. He was only let go after agreeing to move to England. Mazzini, who was struggling financially, traveled to London in January 1837 with a few of his Italian close friends.

The Exile in London

Mazzini regained strength by forming the Giovine Italia in London on 30 April 1840, Mazzini began releasing the Apostolate popolare ("Apostleship of the People") on November 10 of the same year.

Mazzini felt hopeless for some time, up until 1840, by his fruitless attempts to spark revolutions in places like Sicily, Abruzzi, Tuscany, and Lombardy-Venetia. Sidoli had also left him, returning to Italy to be with her children. He regained strength from his mother. Mazzini established several organizations that aimed to free or unite other nations, utilizing the Giovine Italia model as a basis. These were collectively referred to as "Young Europe" (Giovine Europa), "Young Poland," "Young Germany," and "Young Switzerland." Also, he founded an Italian school for those in need at 5 Greville Street in London on November 10, 1841. While residing in London, he wrote a lot of letters to his agents in Europe and South America, which led to his friendship with Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane. The "Young Europe" movement also served as an inspiration for a group of young Turkish army trainees and students who would later name themselves the "Young Turks".

Two young Austrian Navy officers, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, became aware of Mazzini's plot when he organized another rebellion in Bologna in 1843. Mazzini's backing allowed them to land near Cosenza in the Kingdom of Naples, but they were apprehended and executed. Mazzini claimed that the British government had given information on the expeditions to the Neapolitans, which prompted the British Parliament to discuss the matter. With the confirmation that his private correspondence had been read and that its contents had been disclosed to the governments of Austria and Naples by the Foreign Office, Mazzini became more popular and well-liked among British liberals. They were incensed at the government's blatant infringement on his private correspondence.

In 1847, Mazzini moved to London once more. During this time, he sent a lengthy "open letter" to Pope Pius IX. The Pope did not respond, but initially, his allegedly progressive changes gave the impression that he may be a partner in the cause of Italian unification. Mazzini was also the founder of the People's International League. By March 8, 1848, he had arrived in Paris and had established the Associazione Nazionale Italiana, a new political body. Even though Mazzini was unable to attend the first meeting of the Leeds Redemption Society on 7 January 1847, he promised to support them by becoming a member.

Uprisings in 1848-1849

When Mazzini came to Milan on April 7, 1848, the people had fought against the Austrian government and formed a provisional government. The First Italian War of Independence was initiated by Piedmontese ruler Charles Albert and was an attempt to capitalize on the rebellion that eventually failed. Mazzini's desire for Lombardy to stay a republic instead of joining Piedmont made him unpopular in Milan, and he eventually left the city. Following that, he went to Bergamo to enlist in Garibaldi's irregular army, and ultimately, he went to Switzerland with him. Mazzini played a key role in the founding of the Action Party, which was Italy's first formal political organization.

On February 9, 1849, Rome declared itself a republic after Pius IX was forced to flee to Gaeta in November of the same year. Mazzini arrived in the city on the same day the republic was declared. On March 29, he was announced as one of the three leaders of the newly established republic, together with Aurelio Saffi and Carlo Armellini. Mazzini's execution of social reforms and strong administrative skills led to his rapid ascent to the position of de facto leader. Unfortunately, the Pope's call for French troops meant that Republican forces, including Garibaldi-were leading a futile resistance. On July 12, 1849, Mazzini left for Marseille and eventually made it to his home in Switzerland.

Activities in the Later Phase

In 1850, Mazzini was forced to escape the Swiss police. To encourage more individuals to support Italy, he founded Amici di Italia (Friends of Italy) in London in July. However, two failed uprisings in Mantua in 1852 and Milan in 1853 caused considerable harm and decreased trust in Mazzini's group. He was enraged by the fact that Savoy, a region in Italy, was aligned with Austria during the Crimean War. Other than that his attempts to support Felice Orsini's expedition in Carrara in 1853-1854 were unsuccessful.

In 1856, Mazzini returned to Genoa with plans to start more uprisings. The most notable one was headed in Calabria by Carlo Pisacane, but it was unsuccessful. Mazzini managed to avoid being caught by the police, but he was ordered for sentenced to death. As a result, Mazzini stopped participating in the Italian unification movement effectively. The main protagonists were Victor Emmanuel II, the king of Savoy, and his smart prime minister, Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour. Later on, Mazzini came to be known as the "Chief of the Assassins."

In 1858, Mazzini established a brand-new magazine called "Thought and Action" in London. On February 21, 1859, he and 151 other people signed a declaration criticizing Piedmont's support of the French Emperor. This led to the freedom of Italy through another battle and the conquest of Lombardy. Mazzini attempted to contact Garibaldi on May 2, 1860, as he was about to begin his famous "Expedition of the Thousand" campaign in southern Italy. Mazzini wrote a book titled Doveri dell'uomo ("Duties of Man") that same year that summed up his moral and political beliefs. When he visited Naples in September, the city was ruled by Garibaldi. The chief of the village, Giorgio Pallavicino, begged him to leave.

In 1861, a Savoyard king brought Italy together. Rome was not freed in 1862 despite the efforts of Mazzini and Garibaldi. By 1866, Italy had started war on Austria to seize Venetia. Mazzini expressed his dissatisfaction with the unity of Italy by speaking against it. In 1867, he declined a position offered by the administration of Italy. When Mazzini tried to start a rebellion in Sicily in 1870, he was caught and put in jail. Later on, he was set free when Italy at last seized control of Rome. He then left again for London in mid-December.

In 1872, Mazzini passed away at the Domus Mazziniana in Pisa, at the age of 66, from pleurisy. In Genoa, Paolo Gorini embalmed his remains, and over a hundred thousand people attended his funeral.

Individual Opinions

Mazzini was an Italian patriot who firmly believed in republicanism and dreamed of an independent, Italy. Mazzini believed that Italy deserved to be a free, independent republic with a single, united country. However, unlike his comrade Garibaldi, Mazzini refused to support the Savoy royal family until after they had seized control of Rome. He talked with socialists like the Saint-Simonians because he valued justice. However, Mazzini opposed Marxism because he thought it was primarily focused on class conflicts. In addition, he disapproved of Enlightenment ideas that gave individualism or self-interest priority. Some people view Mazzini as a key figure in the development of Italian socialism because of the way his theories combined democracy and social concerns.

The Paris Commune, the name given to the French Revolution of 1871, called for several important changes, including reduced authority for the government and academia. Others saw Mazzini as outdated and unprogressive because of his resistance to this movement, including Karl Marx. The revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin even wrote an essay in favor of the Paris Commune and against Mazzini's theories. This led to a general distancing of many Italians from Mazzini and his networks of support. Speaking about a government led by the middle class, Marx said in an 1871 interview that Mazzini's ideas were restricted. Marx considered Mazzini's theories outdated and insoluble with the wants of the working class, especially given the events of 1848 and the Paris Commune.

In an interview, Marx called Mazzini an "everlasting old ass." Mazzini countered that Marx was an intolerant individual who lacked empathy for others. Mazzini added that Marx controlled his group as a single individual and didn't allow disagreements.

Mazzini did not think highly of the Paris Commune because he saw it as a mistake that caused societal chaos. However, many left-leaning radicals, particularly the younger ones associated with Felice Cavallotti, celebrated the Paris Commune as a historic social revolution. They saw it as a representation of a brand-new, improved civilization.

The daily Il Gazzettino Rosa played a significant role in this change. They accepted Mazzini as Italy's teacher and savior, but they were against his principles becoming established in strict laws. They believed that by forcing his beliefs on everyone, Mazzini was attempting to found a new religion.

According to Lucy Riall, younger radicals in Italy began focusing more on social issues. An increase in socialist movements, mostly inspired by Bakuninist anarchism, coincided with this shift in both northern and southern Italy. The Paris Commune played a significant role in this movement's success.

Mazzini's politics and culture-focused worldview were seriously threatened by the socialist movement that was just getting started. When Mazzini died in early 1872, his era of supremacy was coming to an end. Garibaldi stepped away from Mazzini once more, this time to his left. He aligned himself closer with the younger radicals by publicly supporting internationalist and Paris Commune beliefs. This change revived his political career and led to attempts to form a wider left-wing party.

Henry Hyndman was an admirer of Mazzini, according to Seamus Flahert. However, Hyndman believed that Mazzini was overlooked by younger socialists due to his severe criticism of the Paris Commune and his disagreements with Marx in the early 'International'. Hyndman said Mazzini had a very high opinion of what it is to be human. He brought up a passage Marx had inserted into the "General Rules," which read, "No duties without rights," suggesting that Marx may have done so to appease Mazzini's backers.

Christopher Bayly pointed out that the Saint-Simonian theories of collaboration and Charles Fourier's theory of attraction were similar to Mazzini's theories. But Mazzini was driven more by instinct than logic. Like the Christian socialist George D. Herron, Mazzini's socialism is deeply rooted in moral and theological values. Unlike Marx, Mazzini avoided materialism and class conflict. Instead, he emphasized how important it is for different classes to work together. However, several of Mazzini's supporters inside the Italian Republican Party believed that his principles could be harmonized with Marxist perspectives. They believed that working with left-wing groups was both appropriate and beneficial.

Many interpreted Mazzini's love of Italy as a blend of national pride and worldly concerns, or what some have called "cosmopolitan patriotism." In the 1942 book "Socialism: National or International," Franz Borkenau describes Mazzini as a well-known Genoese leader who was in charge of the underground group known as "Young Italy."

Mazzini hoped that by bringing this concept to other European nations, they would come together to form a larger group known as "Young Europe." Even though this concept was never popular outside of Italy, some individuals abroad were inspired by it. Mazzini's strategy did not work everywhere due to the growth of socialist movements, particularly in France and England.

The socialist Benito Mussolini had nothing but criticism for Mazzini, especially when it came to bringing attention to his strong religious beliefs. Mussolini became frustrated by the fact that some people nearly worshipped Mazzini. But when Mussolini changed his mind and backed entering World War I, he was surrounded by an intense sense of patriotism that reminded him of Mazzini's values.

The Belief

Mazzini was raised with the rigorous theological beliefs of the Jansenists. He was a devoted Christian who saw the importance of prayer and fellowship with God. He found it difficult to accept the idea of not believing in God. His motto, "God and People," expressed his significance to both God and the community.

Mazzini thought that being a citizen was not only a choice it was a duty commanded by God. He believed that our country was like a family because everyone in it had the same history, language, and religion.

Unlike many other philosophers of his time, who focused primarily on issues of class rather than additional factors. Mazzini was a supporter of enhancing society for all citizens, not just members of a specific class. In addition to being a political ideology, socialism was also seen by him as a new faith or religion. For him, this faith meant believing in a single God, following universal principles, and cooperating to achieve a common objective.

"Fede e avvenire (Faith and the Future)," written by Mazzini in 1835, explored the importance of religion and how it is a language that spans all time. According to his theory, the first step towards creating a new world is for individuals to focus on creating a morally pure sense of unity.

However, Mazzini did not always have pleasant interactions with the Pope and the Catholic Church, even though he believed that religion was effective. When they first met in 1847, he was a friendly supporter of Pope Pius IX. However, things quickly turned around, and by 1849, Mazzini had written an open letter criticizing the Pope and passionately disagreeing with him.

Remarkably, Mazzini had other issues besides his opposition to the Catholic Church. He also had issues with Protestantism, another branch of Christianity. He believed that Protestants were excessively divided among themselves, which led to chaos as each person pursued their interests and disobeyed authority.

Ideas and Execution

Mazzini rejected the popular opinion of the Age of Enlightenment, which argued that everyone has certain rights only by being human. Rather, he believed that ethics, compassion, and persistence should be used to obtain these rights. His 1860 book " Doveri dell'uomo (Duties of Man)" addressed this, emphasizing that people must carry out specific activities to receive what is truly theirs.

Additionally, Mazzini developed the idea of "thought and action." He believed that doing something was more important than just thinking about it. Thus, if you have any ideas, you should act on them. He did not appreciate the idea of having theories just and not putting them into practice.

Rights of Female

In "Duties of Man," Mazzini spoke up for women's rights. After meeting and talking with many intellectuals from England and France, he was convinced that gender equality was essential for Italy to develop into a real democracy. He wanted to change the unfair treatment of women in society and the legal system, where they were often seen as less important than males.

Other European intellectuals started to highlight the importance of women's rights as a result of Mazzini's strong views, especially when talking about democracy and the creation of nations. He was incredibly impressed by Jessie White Mario, who was praised by famous Italian leader Giuseppe Garibaldi as the most brave woman of her day. Known as a member of the Redshirts, Jessie fought alongside Garibaldi's force in the 1850s and 1860s. She even covered these events for the Daily News, where she witnessed directly the struggles that led to Italy's unification.

Heritage

Mazzini's sociopolitical beliefs are commonly referred to as Mazzinianism, and his complete worldview is known as the Mazzinian conception. Later, similar statements were utilized by Mussolini and other Italian fascists, such as Giovanni Gentile, to describe their political ideologies and outlook on life.

In the first volume of his Reminiscences, Carl Schurz provides a biography of Mazzini and details two meetings he had in London in 1851. In William R. Denslow's book "10,000 Famous Freemasons," Mazzini is identified as a Mason and even as a Past Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy. However, articles on the Grand Orient of Italy website cast doubt on whether Mazzini was ever a regular Mason and do not include him as a Past Grand Master.

In his lifetime, Mazzini was viewed as a near-god by many in Italy and a traitor by others. Historians today have a more positive opinion of him than those of the past, who thought he was useless after 1849. Founded in 1939 by political refugees from Italy fleeing fascism, the Mazzini Society was named after him and he performed similar work for Italy from abroad.

Mazzini's old home is situated at 155 North Gower Street, close to Euston Square in London. Now, there's a lovely blue plaque there to act as a memory of him. Another monument honoring Mazzini is located in Clerkenwell, which was once Little Italy in London in the 1850s. It is titled "The Apostle of Modern Democracy." Mazzini's statue can be found in Central Park, New York, between 67th and 68th streets. The College of Europe even named the academic year for the 1973-1974 school year in his honor and in recognition of his achievements.

Conclusion

Giuseppe Mazzini was a famous Italian leader who worked to bring together Italy throughout the 19th century. He played an important role in the attempt to bring Italy's split states together, which were administered by foreign countries. Mazzini's beliefs had a significant impact on both Italian and European republican movements. He played a very important role in influencing the Italian Constitution not only that his thought process also influenced a lot of politicians who came after him.