John Locke

John Locke was an English philosopher, and his ideas are considered important for understanding modern philosophy and political liberalism, mainly classical liberalism. This thinking of Locke greatly affected the European Enlightenment and played an important role in shaping the Constitution of the United States.

The philosophical ideas of Locke were quite similar to those of early scientists like Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton. They laid the base for what we now call "empiricism," which means he believed that knowledge comes from our experiences and observations. In politics, Locke emphasized the idea of a social contract between citizens, which means that people agree to follow certain rules and have a government to protect their rights; he also highlighted the importance of tolerance, mainly concerning matters of religion, suggesting that people should respect each other's beliefs.

Many of Locke's political ideas became widely accepted in England after the Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 and also in the United States after the country declared its independence. His influence can be seen in the fundamental principles that shaped modern democracies, making him a famous figure in the history of philosophy and political thought.

Early Life of John Locke

John Locke was born on the 29^th of August, 1632, in Wrington, Somerset, England. His family supported Puritanism, a religious movement in the Church, but they stayed connected to the Church of England; this motivated the life and thoughts of John Locke. He grew up in Pensford, near Bristol, and when he was 10 years old, the English Civil Wars began; these wars were between King Charles I and the parliamentary forces that Oliver Cromwell led. Locke's father, who was a lawyer, fought for the parliamentary side as a captain in the cavalry, facing some limited action.

Given his early life experiences was likely that Locke did not believe in the right to rule by the king based on divine authority; his upbringing and watching and experiencing the conflicts of the time probably shaped his views on government and authority.

Locke's father secured a position for his son at Westminster School in London; Locke, who had shown academic promise, entered the renowned school at the age of 14 in 1647. Although the school was now under the control of the new republican government, its headmaster, Richard Busby, was a supporter of the monarchy (the king's rule), and Locke spent four years under Busby's instruction and authority. Busby, who was known for his strict discipline, favored using the birch as a form of punishment. In January 1649, just a short distance from Westminster School, King Charles I was executed on the orders of Oliver Cromwell; even though the boys were not permitted to witness the execution, they were likely well aware of the significant events happening nearby.

At Westminster School, the main subjects were Greek, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew, geography, and Mathematics; in 1650, Locke achieved the honor of being elected a King's Scholar, which not only recognized his academic excellence but also provided financial help to him as this financial help allowed him to purchase several books, mainly books of Greek and Latin language.

Even though Locke was a good student, he did not particularly enjoy his time at school later in life, and he criticized boarding schools for giving too much physical punishment and for the rude behavior of students. In his highly affected work named "Some Thoughts Concerning Education" (released in 1693), Locke argued in support of private tutoring as a better method for educating young gentlemen; this point of view is discussed further in his other works.

Studying At the University of Oxford

In the year 1652, when he was 20 years old, John Locke enrolled at Christ Church, the largest college at the University of Oxford; this college had served as the royal court for Charles I during the Civil Wars. However, by the time Locke enrolled, the royalist era had ended, and Puritan followers of Cromwell held most positions: Cromwell himself, who was a prominent Puritan leader working as the chancellor, and John Owen, who once was Cromwell's chaplain, was the vice-chancellor and dean. Other than this shift in leadership, Owen and Cromwell were mainly focusing on bringing back the normality of the university, and their efforts were mainly successful in restoring the university to a more regular and stable state.

Locke later mentioned that he was not very excited about the classes he took at Oxford as an undergraduate, as the curriculum of the university focused more on Aristotle, especially his logic, and did not consider the newer ideas and knowledge from natural thinkers like Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes; Locke started reading their works on his own even though these thinkers were not part of the official syllabus.

He completed his bachelor's degree in 1656 and earned a master's degree after two years; around the same time, he became a student (similar to a fellow) at Christ Church. While at Oxford, Locke made connections with some people who supported new scientific ideas, including astronomer Christopher Wren, Bishop John Wilkins, doctors Thomas Willis and physicist Robert Hooke, Richard Lower, and the influential philosopher and theologian Robert Boyle; Locke attended classes on iatrochemistry, a previous stage of using chemistry in medicine, and began working with Boyle on important medical research related to human blood. From then on, medicine became a main focus in the life of Locke.

When the English monarchy came back in 1660, it brought both good and challenging aspects for John Locke as many of his scientific colleagues returned to London, and together, they formed the Royal Society, a hub for scientific research. This development provided a significant boost to scientific exploration; however, the situation in Oxford, where Locke was, took a different turn. The new freedom from Puritan control resulted in disorderly conduct and intense religious fervor among the undergraduate students; seeing these excesses made Locke cautious about swift social changes. This wariness likely stemmed, in part, from his own experiences during his childhood in the times of the Civil Wars.

In the year 1660, John Locke wrote one of his first political books named, "Two Tracts on Government," although it was not published until later, in the year 1967. In this early work, Locke took a protective or defensive stance, and he argued that, for the sake of political stability, a government has the right to make laws about any religious matter that is not directly connected to the core beliefs of Christianity. This point of view was aimed at preventing potential chaos arising from religious differences, and it was quite different from the ideas he later showed in "Two Treatises of Government" in 1689. In that later work, Locke defended a different set of political principles.

In 1663, John Locke took on the job of senior censor at Christ Church, a position where he had to watch over the studies and behavior of undergraduates and give a series of lectures. The result of this job was the creation of "Essays on the Law of Nature," first published in 1954. This collection represents early concepts of his philosophical ideas, many of which he kept using throughout his life.

Two key principles in these concepts stood out: 1st Locke strongly believed in a "law of nature," a moral law inherent in the natural order that determines the rightness or wrongness of human actions; 2nd, he believed in the idea of empiricism, which means that all knowledge, including moral understanding, comes from experience and is not something people are born with; these principles became base for his later philosophical works, mainly in the realms of political theory and epistemology.

Time With Shaftesbury

In 1666, John Locke met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, later famous as the 1^st Earl of Shaftesbury, by a mutual connection; Ashley, a prominent member and eventually the leader of a political group called the Whigs, had some control in England during the first twenty years after the Restoration.

Impressed by Locke, Ashley invited him to join his London household at Exeter House in the Strand the following year; even though Locke did not have a medical degree at the time, Ashley appointed him as both an aide and personal physician. Ashley was an important political figure at that time, advocating for a constitutional monarchy, a Protestant succession, civil liberty, religious tolerance, parliamentary rule, and the economic growth of England. Locke shared these goals or quickly adopted them, creating a deep and important understanding between them.\

Locke played a role in drafting papers on religious tolerance, probably for Ashley to use in parliamentary speeches; as a physician, Locke was involved in some important medical procedure to insert a silver tube into a tumor on Ashley's liver, easing his pain by allowing regular draining. This tube remained in place for the rest of Ashley's life, and additionally, Locke played a part in finding a suitable wife for Ashley's son.

By the year 1668, John Locke had become a member of the Royal Society and was involved in medical research with his friend Thomas Sydenham, a respected and famous physician of that time; while Locke was the junior partner in their collaboration, together they have done some important research based on careful observation and minimal speculation, but the method they used reinforced Locke's dedication to philosophical empiricism.

Locke's work or actions were not limited only to medicine; he also worked as secretary to the lords and proprietors of Carolina, a role that Ashley gave, and their work was to promote the establishment of the North American colony. In this position, Locke played an important role in making "The Fundamental Constitutions for the Government of Carolina" in 1669; this document included provisions guaranteeing freedom of religion for everyone except atheists.

During his time at Exeter House, John Locke maintained close relationships with his friends; the start of his most important philosophical work, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689), began during a meeting with friends in his rooms, likely around February 1671. At this meeting, the group decided to discuss matters of morality and revealed religion-knowledge of God obtained through revelation.

Locke suggested that, before getting to know about these topics, they should first explore the fundamental question of what the human mind can and cannot understand. The group agreed, and it was decided that Locke would prepare a paper on this subject for their next meeting. This paper eventually became the initial draft of his effective work.

Time in France

In 1672, John Locke's associate Ashley became the 1^st Earl of Shaftesbury and was appointed as the lord chancellor of England at the end of that year; however, he fell out of favor with King Charles II and was afterward dismissed. This turn of events and time put both Shaftesbury and Locke in a dangerous situation, which promoted Locke to travel to France in 1675; by this time, Locke had completed his bachelor of medicine degree from Oxford and got a medical studentship at Christ Church. The uncertain political climate and potential risks played a role in his decision to spend time in France during this period.

John Locke stayed in France for around four years, from 1675 to 1679; during this time, he spent quite a time in Paris and Montpellier. Montpellier, in particular, had a substantial Protestant community and the most important medical school in Europe, both of which were liked by Locke; he became friends with many within the Protestant community, also with notable intellectuals.

While Locke's social connections were toward the Protestant circle, his reading material mainly consisted of works by French Catholic philosophers; however, the main focus of his journals during this period was his medical interests, and he observed and noted the poverty of the local population, drawing comparisons with conditions in England and the expenditures of the French king, Louis XIV, on the Palace of Versailles. Although Locke occasionally got to know about philosophical questions and added notes to his journal, the primary emphasis during this time was on his observations and reflections related to medicine; some of these philosophical notes can be found in his later work, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding."

Upon returning to England in 1679, John Locke found that his associate Shaftesbury, who had previously been in jail in the Tower of London for a year, had been released in February 1678. By the time Locke came back, Shaftesbury had regained favor and was appointed as the lord president of the Privy Council; however, the country was dealing with internal conflicts related to the exclusion controversy.

This debate revolved around the question of whether a law could be passed to prevent (exclude) Charles II's Roman Catholic brother, James, from succeeding to the English throne. Both Shaftesbury and Locke strongly supported exclusion, but the tension raised during the so-called Popish Plot, a belief in a supposed Catholic conspiracy to assassinate Charles and replace him with James. The existence of this plot was widely accepted, which led to the execution of many innocent people before the fabricator, Anglican priest Titus Oates was discredited; the exclusion controversy reached its peak during this period of hysteria.

John Locke's Work "Two Treatises of Government"

When Shaftesbury could not find a way to reconcile the interests of the king and Parliament, he was fired, and in 1681, he got arrested, went to trial, and was finally found not guilty of treason by a London jury; however, a year later, in 1682, he escaped to Holland, where he passed away in 1683. Now, no one from the friends of Shaftesbury knew that they were not safe in England, which also included Locke, as he was being closely monitored, Locke decided to go to Holland in September 1683.

During the bad timing in England, John Locke wrote his big work in political philosophy, "Two Treatises of Government," which was published in 1689. While scholars are not sure about the exact date of its writing, it is proved that an important portion of this work was completed before Locke left for Holland. The context in which "Two Treatises" came up was the political situation during England's disputes, but its message showed lasting importance.

In the particular role of the work it was composed later, Locke clarified that the arguments presented in the two treatises were interconnected, and the entire work is just a justification for the Glorious Revolution, a historical event that brought two monarchs, William III and Mary II to the throne after James II went to France. The work, "Two Treatises of Government," showed the political challenges of its time while giving information about governance and political philosophy.

John Locke's political philosophy was strongly affected by his deep-rooted religious beliefs; throughout his life, he believed in the idea of creating God and the belief that all humans are servants of God by virtue of this relationship. According to Locke, God made humans for a specific purpose, i.e., to live in accordance with His laws and thereby attain eternal salvation; as for Locke's philosophy, God provided humans with the intellectual and other abilities important to achieve this purpose.

Locke believed that, through the capacity of reason, humans could discover the existence of God, identify His laws and the duties associated with these laws, and get sufficient knowledge to fulfill their responsibilities, which can lead to a happy and successful life; this allows humans to recognize some of their actions, like neglecting one's offspring or failing to uphold contracts are morally reprehensible and contrary to natural law which is equal to the law of God.

While reasons can understand some moral laws, Locke acknowledged that others may only be known through revelation, and this revelation can come from reading sacred texts like the Geeta, Bible, or the Quran, giving extra guidance for moral understanding beyond what reason alone can understand.

John Locke's philosophical foundation was related to Protestant Christianity, making his opinion on Roman Catholicism with a hostile attitude. Locke did not accept the notion of papal infallibility, questioning how such a claim could ever be proven; additionally, he also had concerns about the political aspects of Catholicism, seeing it as a threat to English autonomy, particularly after Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685. This edict had previously given religious freedom to the Protestant Huguenots; Locke thought this move was a threat to religious liberty and saw it as a reason to be wary of the political influence of Catholicism in England.

The First Treatise

In the first treatise of "Two Treatises of Government," John Locke gave the information of the ideas of another 17^th-century political thinker, Sir Robert Filmer; he, in his work "Patriacha" (1680, probably written in the 1630s), defended the theory of the divine right of kings; this theory says that the authority of every king is divinely sanctioned by their descent from Adam, who, according to the Bible, was the first king and father of humanity.

Locke did not agree with Filmer's theory, considering it the opposite of "common sense," and he argued that the right to rule based on descent from Adam's supposed grant lacked any historical evidence or support; additionally, Locke said that even if a contract between God and Adam existed, it would not connect remote descendants thousands of years later, especially if a clear line of descent could not be identified.

Locke's disproof of Filmer's ideas got widespread acceptance and was seen as decisive; moreover, the theory of the divine right of kings was mostly not believed in England after the events of 1688.

The Second Treatise

John Locke's importance as a political philosopher is mostly found in the statement that he gave in the second treatise of "Two Treatises of Government;" in this work, he begins by defining political power as: "Right of making Laws with Penalties of Death, and consequently all fewer Penalties, for the Regulating and Preserving of Property, and of employing the force of the Community, in the Execution of such Laws and in defense of the Commonwealth from Foreign Injury, and all this only for the Publick Good."

Probably, Locke is trying to say that political power has the authority to create laws, including those with severe penalties, to regulate and safeguard property. It also includes using the collective force of the community to apply these laws and defend the commonwealth from external threats, all with the main goal of increasing the public good. The rest of the treatise is an explanation of the ideas given or provided in the above paragraph.

Locke's Opinion on the State of Nature and Social Contracts

In John Locke's point of view, the definition of political power lies in the capacity, and it carries an immediate moral dimension; for Locke, political power is a "right" to create and enforce laws, and this right is exercised for the purpose of making "the public good." In Locke's perspective, power is not just about the ability to do something; it is about having the moral approval to do so. In Locke's view, morality is like the threads that knit through the whole fabric of society; whether a society is seen as legitimate or not depends a lot on this moral aspect. Essentially, according to Locke, society is considered legitimate when its actions and rules are morally justified.

Locke's ideas about political society start from thinking about how things were before people formed communities; he imagines this as a "state of nature" where everyone is completely free, but it is not a free-for-all because there are rules-what he calls it the "law of nature." In this state, everyone is equal, and there is no natural hierarchy or ranking among people, i.e., each person is naturally free and equal, following the law of nature set by the wise Creator (God). Everyone must follow and enforce this law also having the right to punish those who break these laws.

But, in this natural state, giving everyone the power to punish could turn out problems like injustice and violence, and to solve this, Locke suggests that people should make a deal or contract with each other. This contract is an agreement to create a civil government, a kind of authority that can make sure everyone follows the law of nature. While any contract is okay as long as it does not go against the law of nature, sometimes you need a higher authority, like a government, to make sure people follow the agreement or rules. The main job of society, according to Locke, is to create a system where fair contracts, freely agreed upon, can be enforced, and this is much harder to make sure of in the natural state without civil society.

Property

Before getting the details of how political society is created, Locke spent a lot of time describing something very important to his ideas: property. According to Locke, each person owns their own body; it is their property, and others cannot use it without permission. But, through labor, people can acquire property beyond their bodies. When someone works on something-like turning an empty field into crops or a bunch of wood into a house-the product of that work, like the crops or the house, becomes their property. Locke's thinking was a forerunner to the labor theory of value, which later economists like David Ricardo and Karl Marx talked about in the 19th century (also known as classical economics).

According to Locke, everyone has a right to the things they create through their work, enough to meet their basic needs; however, in the natural state, Locke believed it is not okay to gather more than you need and keep the extra for yourself, and he thought people should share their extra with those who have less. Locke said that God gave the world to everyone to use together for the best benefit of life and convenience. When it comes to money, Locke pointed out that its introduction changed how society works a lot as money, unlike physical things, does not have value on its own; it only has value because people agree that it does. So, the idea of using money to trade goods and services is something people came up with over time.

Locke's ideas about owning property raise some tricky questions, as it is not always clear how much work is needed to turn something that does not belong to anyone into your property. For instance, if you put a fence around a piece of land, does that make it yours? Or do you need to do more, like plow the land? Even though there are uncertainties, there is a compelling idea in Locke's thinking-that doing something, like working on or with something, is what gives you the right to call it your own.

Organizing the Government

In Chapter 8th of the second treatise, Locke talks about how political society works in the community, which is formed by a social contract, and the decisions of the majority should be followed, but always within the limits of the law of nature. The main player here is the legislative body, which makes the rules; however, these rules cannot go the opposite of the law of nature, which protects fundamental rights like life, liberty, and property.

These laws must treat everyone equally and not take the side of any specific groups. Also, the powers of making laws, enforcing them, and judging them should be separate. The legislative body, with the majority's agreement, can impose taxes to run the state, including its defense.

If the leader (executive power) does not create conditions for people to enjoy their natural rights, then the people have the right to remove them-even if it means using force; so, according to Locke, extreme situations may allow for a revolution, like the one he believed was justified in 1688.

Locke's ideas about how political societies should work are incredibly important, and his belief in individualism, meaning the importance of individuals, combined with the idea of following the law of nature, had a huge impact; it strongly affected the U.S. Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the way the U.S. government is set up, as seen in the Constitution.

George Washington, who was the first president of the United States, even called Locke "the greatest man who had ever lived." In France, during the French Revolution in 1789, principles inspired by Locke, like those found in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, played an important role in shaping their ideas about government and individual rights.

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Locke stayed in Holland for over five years, from 1683 to 1689; during this time, he formed important friendships and connected with other people who were like him, who had left England. Additionally, he wrote his first Letter on Toleration, which was published without his name in Latin in 1689; alongside this, he also finished writing "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding."

• Theory of Ideas

The main idea of Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding revolves around a crucial question: How much can the human mind understand and know? In the beginning, at Exeter House, this was the main topic of discussion. In the introduction chapter, Locke says that the Essay is not meant to add new knowledge but to clear the confusing ideas that hinder understanding, and he was particularly important to two groups: the medieval Scholastics and some of his contemporaries. The Scholastics, who mainly relied on Aristotle and his commentators, dominated European university teachings. Locke believed they organized philosophy with confusing terms like "substantial form and vegetative soul," which, on closer inspection, had little or no clear meaning; Locke thought that defeating these ideas was a necessary step before his views on knowledge could be widely accepted, and he was quite correct in this assessment.

Locke started his Essay by rejecting the idea that certain types of knowledge-like knowing about God, certain moral truths, or the laws of logic or math-are already in our minds from the start, imprinted when we are created. This concept of "innate ideas" was popular and used to support religious and moral beliefs, tracing back to the philosophy of Plato, an influential figure from ancient times; however, Locke argues the opposite. He says an idea cannot be considered "in the mind" until we are aware of it. Newborn babies, according to Locke, do not have thoughts about God or moral, logical, or mathematical truths; if we assume they do, despite clear evidence otherwise, it is just an unsupported idea to defend a particular thing. Locke points out that people traveling to faraway places have met others with entirely different ideas about God and morality, and this diversity in beliefs, according to Locke, cannot be explained by the theory of innate ideas; instead, he suggests his own explanation for where ideas come from.

In the second part of his Essay, Locke changes his topic of explanation and tries to explain where our knowledge comes from. He suggests that there are two main sources: 1st, our experiences through our senses (like seeing the red color of a rose, hearing the ringing of a bell, or tasting salt), and 2nd, our "reflection" on our thoughts and feelings (being aware that we are thinking, feeling happy or sad, or experiencing a particular sensation).

These sources, however, do not directly give us knowledge; they give information to the mind of the raw materials of knowledge, and Locke calls these materials "ideas," these ideas are not physical objects but mental representations of physical things that our consciousness perceives. So, when we think of an idea, it is like having an image or concept in our mind that represents something we have experienced through our senses or our reflections.

Locke categorizes all ideas as either simple or complex; simple ideas come from our senses, like the color of an apple or the sound of a bell, and complex ideas, on the other hand, are formed when our minds combine simple and other complex ideas. While complex ideas can be broken down or analyzed into simpler parts, simple ideas cannot. For instance, the complex idea of a snowball can be broken down into simple ideas like whiteness, roundness, and solidity; however, these simple ideas cannot be broken down any further.

According to Locke, an important role of philosophy is to analyze the meanings of terms by identifying the ideas behind them, and this idea of breaking down complex ideas became a major theme in philosophy, mainly in the analytic tradition that emerged in the early 20th century and became affected in English-speaking universities like Cambridge and Oxford.

• Two Types of Quality of Physical Objects: Primary and Secondary

In his writings, Locke discusses several important points, one of which is his informative distinctions between the "primary and secondary" qualities of physical objects; primary qualities, such as size, shape, weight, and solidity, are seen in the object: for example, when you think about the roundness of a snowball, your idea of thinking of the actual roundness of the snowball.

On the other hand, secondary qualities, like color, taste, and smell, do not look like any important property in the object; instead, they result from the object's ability to start certain ideas in our minds. So, when you see the whiteness of a snowball, it is not because the color of the snowball is white, but it is an idea formed in your mind due to the interaction of light, the snowball's primary qualities, and your sense organs, and this distinction helps us understand how our perceptions are shaped by the qualities of objects and our senses.

• Personal Identity

Locke discusses a different problem that had not received much attention before, i.e., personal identity. When we say we are the same person as last week or the person born years ago, what exactly is the truth behind it? Locke carefully differentiates the idea of being the same person from being the same body or the same human being.

Being the same body requires the same matter, and being the same human being relies on the continuity of life; however, being the same person has something different. Locke says that personal identity is about the continuity of consciousness. If you have memories of the earlier person's conscious experiences, you are considered the same person as that individual from last week or years ago. This idea became a standard, although controversial, position in later discussions on personal identity.

Association of Ideas

Locke explains another important aspect in his 2nd Book, discussing the association of ideas, and he said that ideas in the mind can be linked in a way that when you have one idea, it immediately leads you to another idea, even if the two ideas are not directly connected. Instead, they are linked because you have experienced them together many times in the past, and Locke believed this psychological ability to associate ideas with experience has significant implications for educating children.

According to Locke, to teach children good habits and avoid bad ones, it is important to give rewards for good behavior and punishments for bad behavior. This concept affected later researchers like the English physician David Hartley, contributing to the development of associationism or associationist psychology in the 18th century. The study of associations between ideas has remained a central topic in psychology ever since.

• Language Used

Locke continued his explanation in his 3rd Book by giving knowledge about the role of language in human mental life; this was considered the first in-depth philosophical inquiry into the concept of linguistic meaning in modern times. He started with simple claims, stating that words represent ideas in the mind of the person using them. Locke argued that words serve as a means for people to communicate their inner thoughts to one another.

According to Locke's point of view, only particular things or individual things exist. At the same time, there are many triangular and red things, and there is no general quality like "triangle" or "redness" apart from these individual items. Despite this, many words have a general application, showing multiple particular things simultaneously; therefore, words act as labels for both ideas of specific things (particular ideas) and ideas of general things (general ideas). The challenge, according to Locke, is understanding where general ideas come from if everything that exists is particular.

Locke suggested that ideas become general through a process called abstraction; for a better understanding, take the example of a triangle: the general idea of a triangle is formed by abstracting or focusing on the shared qualities of all triangles while not considering particular details. In the case of a triangle, the common feature would be having three straight sides. While there are challenges and criticisms of Locke's explanation, other ideas also face difficulties and complexities.

• Knowledge

In the 4^th Book of his Essay, Locke tells about the main points of his investigation: the nature and scope of human knowledge, and his definition of knowledge implies that very few things qualify as true knowledge for him. He generally dismisses claims of knowledge when there is no clear connection or exclusion between the ideas involved; for example, knowing that white is not black when both ideas are present or understanding the Euclidean proof that the angles of a triangle add up to two right angles represents a verified knowledge. However, anticipating that the next stone dropped will fall downward or that the next glass of water will quench thirst is based on probability and does not fall short of true knowledge, according to Locke. Although such probable claims are important for navigating the world, Locke maintains that they do not reach the level of genuine knowledge.

Some important things can be known, according to Locke; for instance, each person can immediately know and be certain of their existence without needing any more proof. Similarly, one can immediately find the differences in colors, like recognizing that black is not white or understanding that two is greater than one. Locke also said that a first cause, or God, can be proven to exist through valid argumentation based on self-evident truths; additionally, moral principles, such as the duty of parents to care for their children and the importance of honoring contracts, can be demonstrated. Mistakes usually happen when people are unclear about their concepts or fail to analyze relevant ideas. Locke also highlighted the tendency of humans to fall into what he called "Enthusiasm," accepting claims without proper logical evidence, mostly because of beliefs from early experiences.

The Essay provided a particular challenge: if ideas are the immediate objects of experience, how can one be certain that there is anything beyond them, such as ordinary physical objects? Locke's response to this particular problem, that he sees this problem as a challenge, seemed to rely on the idea that perception, being a natural process, is divinely ordained and, therefore, generally reliable in revealing the nature of the universe. However, as skepticism grew in the 18th century, this argument became less convincing, and this question became a central concern in the study of epistemology during that period.

Locke's Other Works

Locke did not only write about political philosophy and epistemology; his work "Some Thoughts Concerning Education" (released in 1693) is an important reference in the philosophy of education. It originally came from letters Locke used to write to his friend Edward Clarke about educating his son (Clarke's), who was being prepared to be a gentleman. This book tells about the importance of both physical exercise and intellectual study; the primary goal is to instill virtue, wisdom, and good manners, followed by academic learning. Locke provides a list of recommended works or books covering many subjects like mathematics. Latin, French, history, geography, civil law, natural science, and philosophy; he also said that one can also include in activities such as dancing and riding.

Work by Locke, "The Reasonableness of Christianity" (published in 1695), is one of the most important theological writings in which he describes that every individual possesses the necessary abilities to understand their duty and attain salvation through the Scriptures. Locke tried to find a path that allowed people to get important Christian doctrines while preserving freedom of conscience; according to him, all Christians must acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah and live according to his teachings. Yet, within these basic principles, Locke advocated for tolerance of diverse worship practices, and his ideas aligned with the Latitudinarian movement and liberal theological trends, making a significant impact on Protestant Christian thought for at least the following century.

Locke did not produce any particular work on moral philosophy. At the same time, he suggested the possibility of creating a deductive ethical system similar to Euclid's geometry; there is no evidence that he pursued this idea seriously. However, he believed that by using reason, humans could understand fundamental moral truths derived from a moral order within human nature. In his early work "Essays on the Law of Nature."(published in 1664), Locke said that human beings, with their innate reason and faculties, have inherent duties dictated by their Constitution and destined way of life. Similar to how the nature of a triangle shows that its angles sum up to two right angles, Locke argued that this moral order can be seen through reason and is accessible to all human beings.

A Quick Note of Locke's Work

• Laslett, P. (ed) (1988), "Two Treatises of Government," Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Locke, J. (1823) "The Works of John Locke," London: Printed for T. Tegg (in 10 volumes).
• Locke, J. "The Clarendon Edition of the Works of John Locke," Oxford University Press, 2015. This edition includes the following volumes:
• Nidditch, P. (ed) (1975) "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding."
• Nidditch, P. and G.A.J. Rogers (eds) (1990) "Drafts for the Essay Concerning Human Understanding."
• Yolton, J.W. and J.S. Yolton (eds) (1989) "Some Thoughts Concerning Education."
• Higgins-Biddle, J.C. (ed) (1999) "The Reasonableness of Christianity."
• Milton, J.R. and P. Milton (eds) (2006) "An Essay Concerning Toleration."
• de Beer, E.S. (ed) (1976-1989) "The Correspondence of John Locke" (in 8 volumes).
• von Leyden, W. (ed) (1954) "Essays on the Law of Nature," Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Last Years and Influence of John Locke

Locke stayed in Holland until the overthrow of James 2nd in the Glorious Revolution; in February 1689, he returned to England with the Princess of Orange, who became Queen Mary 2nd. Back in England, Locke actively participated in political initiatives, such as contributing to the English Bill of Rights, although the final version adopted by Parliament did not fully align with his views on religious toleration, he continued to be involved. Locke denied serving in a diplomatic post offered by William; Locke found happiness in the company of his friend Damaris Masham's family at Oates in High Laver, Essex. There, he spent his final years remembering his works, hosting friends, and engaging with critics he had his whole life; struggling with poor health, he passed away on the 28th of October 1704 while Damaris read him the Bible, and he was laid to rest in High Laver church.

As an important personality in Western thought, John Locke's writings offer a valuable introduction to the intellectual landscape of the modern Western world. His belief in the transformative power of knowledge is strong in his role as the main philosopher of the Enlightenment; Locke is a main figure in the development of British empiricism, a philosophical tradition spanning three centuries. His contributions to the Whig ideology during the exclusion controversy and the Glorious Revolution articulate the classic principles of liberalism, influencing the revolutions of 1776 and 1789. Today, Locke's impact endures, shaping ongoing discussions on the concepts of mind, freedom, and authority in Western thought.

Conclusion

John Locke is usually considered the founder of British Empiricism, playing an important role in shaping English-language philosophy during the 18th and early 19th centuries; while his influence is undeniable, subsequent philosophers like George Berkeley and David Hume presented thoughtful critiques of Locke's ideas. Thomas Reid and others also engaged in significant discussions. In recent times, scholars have tried to present more charitable interpretations of Locke's philosophy; despite debates and critiques, Locke maintains a significant place in the Anglophone philosophical canon.