Louis XVI

Louis XVI, born Louis Auguste, held the throne of France until its monarchy crumbled during the tumultuous era of the French Revolution. He inherited the title of Dauphin at a young age and later ascended to King of France and Navarre in 1774. His reign, initially marked by efforts to modernize governance in line with Enlightenment ideals, faced staunch opposition from the nobility.

Early Life and Education

Louis-Auguste, titled Duc de Berry at birth, entered the world on August 23, 1754, within the grand walls of the Palace of Versailles. Born as the second surviving son to Louis, the Dauphin of France, and grandson to King Louis XV of France and Maria Leszczyńska, his upbringing was within a family of royal lineage. His mother, Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, hailed from distinguished ancestry as the daughter of Augustus III, Prince-Elector of Saxony, King of Poland, and Archduchess Maria Josepha of Austria.

In his early years, Louis-Auguste was overshadowed by his older brother, Louis, Duc de Bourgogne, who was esteemed for his brightness and looks but tragically passed away at the tender age of nine in 1761. Despite being a shy child, Louis-Auguste showed robust health and excelled in his studies, displaying a keen interest in various subjects such as Latin, history, geography, and astronomy. Fluent in Italian and English, he also found joy in physical pursuits like hunting alongside his grandfather and engaging in boisterous play with his younger siblings.

Following his father's demise due to tuberculosis in December 1765, the eleven-year-old Louis-Auguste assumed the role of the new Dauphin. Unfortunately, his mother's subsequent passing in 1767, also due to tuberculosis, left a profound impact on him. Under the tutelage of Duc de La Vauguyon, the "Gouverneur des enfants de France," Louis-Auguste received a strict and traditional education until his marriage in 1770. However, this upbringing did not adequately prepare him for the eventual throne he ascended in 1774 after the death of his grandfather, Louis XV.

His education, a blend of religious studies, moral teachings, and humanities, might have inadvertently contributed to his later indecisiveness. Instructors like Abbé Berthier instilled the belief that timidity held value in strong monarchs. At the same time, Abbé Soldini, his confessor, advised him against revealing his thoughts to the public, potentially shaping Louis-Auguste's hesitant demeanor as a king.

Marriage and Family

Louis-Auguste, born Duc de Berry, found himself betrothed at a young age. On May 16, 1770, at fifteen, he married Maria Antonia, known as Marie Antoinette in France. She was fourteen, the youngest daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and Empress Maria Theresa.

Their union faced public hostility due to France's previous setbacks in the Seven Years' War, in which the alliance with Austria led to defeat against Britain and Prussia. By their wedding, the French held negative sentiments toward the Austrian connection, viewing Marie Antoinette as an unwelcome outsider. Initially, the marriage between Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette was polite yet distant due to their young ages and lack of familiarity-they had met only days before the wedding. This led to initial challenges in consummating their marriage, exacerbated by Louis-Auguste's shyness and concerns about being manipulated for political reasons. Over time, they grew closer, but their union wasn't reportedly consummated until 1777.

The couple's inability to conceive children initially strained their marriage. Their infertility was mocked in public pamphlets, intensifying the pressure. Discussions arose regarding the reasons behind their childlessness, with suggestions that Louis-Auguste suffered from a physiological issue, possibly phimosis. However, historical debates exist regarding whether he underwent any surgical procedure for this issue.

Their eventual success in having children led to the birth of four live-born offspring. However, Marie Antoinette also faced the sorrow of two miscarriages, causing emotional distress within the family. In addition to their biological children, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette adopted several children, some of whom lived with the royal family. In contrast, others faced tragic fates, especially during the tumultuous period of the French Revolution.

Monarch of France

During his reign, Louis XVI prioritized religious freedom and foreign policy. Despite being groomed as the Dauphin since 1765, he struggled with decisiveness and firmness. Demonstrating a desire for public affection, he often prefaced his edicts by explaining their benefits to the people, even when reinstating the parliament. His motivation stemmed from a longing to be beloved by his subjects, stating, "It may not be politically wise, but I seek the people's favor."

Despite this indecision, Louis XVI aimed to be a benevolent ruler, valuing public opinion and believing it to be consistently right. To assist in governance, he relied on the counsel of experienced advisors, notably Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Comte de Maurepas, who managed key ministerial functions until he died in 1781.

A significant event during Louis XVI's rule was the Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance, signed on November 7, 1787, and registered in the parliament on January 29, 1788. This edict granted civil and legal status to non-Roman Catholics-Huguenots, Lutherans, and Jews-allowing them to practice their faiths. It effectively annulled the long-standing Edict of Fontainebleau, which had been in force for over a century. While the Edict of Versailles didn't formally declare religious freedom in France, that milestone came two years later with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789. Nonetheless, it marked a crucial step in easing religious tensions and officially ending religious persecution within the realm.

Economic Policies

Turgot and Malesherbes, advocating radical financial reforms, faced opposition from the nobility and parlements who disputed the King's authority to impose new taxes. In 1776, Turgot was dismissed, and Malesherbes resigned, paving the way for Jacques Necker's appointment. Necker, supporting the American Revolution, opted for extensive international loans instead of tax hikes. In 1781, he aimed to win public favor by publishing the Compte-rendu au Roi, misguiding the public about the French Crown's financial standing.

When Necker's strategy failed, Louis XVI replaced him in 1783 with Charles Alexandre de Calonne. Calonne's approach involved increased public spending to alleviate debt, but this, too, proved unsuccessful. In 1787, Louis convened the Assembly of Notables to discuss Calonne's proposed fiscal reform. When the nobility learned of the true extent of the debt, they rejected the plan.

Subsequently, Louis XVI and his financial controller, Étienne-Charles de Loménie de Brienne, attempted to force the Parlement de Paris to register new laws and fiscal reforms. Facing resistance, Louis resorted to various measures, including exile, arrests, and dissolution of the Parlement. However, these efforts failed due to public support for the Parlement, the dire state of the royal treasury, and the King's lack of personal authority.

As reforms became inevitable, calls for the Estates-General grew louder. In a final attempt to secure monetary reforms, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General on August 8, 1788, with the opening set for May 1, 1789. However, the King's reliance on traditional procedures and the stark differentiation in attire between the Estates exacerbated tensions. The convocation set the stage for the transformation of the country's economic and political challenges into the French Revolution.

Royal Spending

Under the direction of Papillon de la Ferté, the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi detailed the costs of performances in various palaces from 1756 to 1780. Notably, the 1771 wedding and the 1779 performance of Castor et Pollux were especially costly, involving hundreds of participants. In 1788, royal household spending accounted for 13% of total state expenses, excluding interest on debts.

Foreign Policy

After the Seven Years' War, Louis XVI faced a weakened France due to Britain's territorial gains. Seeking military retribution and aspiring to reclaim lost colonies, the French strategy focused on bolstering military strength for potential conflict against Britain. France retained influence in the West Indies and maintained trading posts in India, maintaining a tense atmosphere with Britain.

American Revolution and European Involvement

In 1776, French Foreign Secretary Vergennes saw an opportunity to damage Britain and regain lost territory by supporting the American Revolution. Persuaded by Pierre Beaumarchais, Louis XVI clandestinely supplied the American rebels. By 1778, France officially allied with America, triggering war with Britain. Alarming reports after the Battle of Saratoga influenced the King's decision to war, despite France's financial woes. Spain and the Netherlands joined France in opposing Britain. Although plans to invade the British Isles were abandoned, French assistance in America eventually led to crucial victories and forced Britain to negotiate peace in 1783.

The outcome, however, fell short of France's expectations. While Britain recognized American independence, France gained Tobago and Senegal but failed to secure other desired territories. The war cost a significant sum, primarily financed by new high-interest loans, which Necker concealed from the public. Post-war, new taxes were introduced to address the financial crisis.

Europe and Asia

France's intervention in America was predicated on maintaining neutrality in European conflicts, avoiding a repeat of mistakes from the Seven Years' War. Despite Marie Antoinette's intervention favoring Austria during the Bavarian Succession crisis, France aimed to steer clear of a continental war. However, this move tarnished the Queen's reputation.

Regarding Asia, Louis XVI aimed to exploit the American Revolution to weaken British control in India. France formed alliances with Indian leaders and intervened in Cochinchina, sealing pacts and providing military support. The King also championed major exploration voyages, appointing La Pérouse to lead a global expedition in 1785.

Louis XVI's hopes for territorial gains in India and strategic alliances in Asia materialized through various diplomatic endeavors, showcasing France's active involvement in global affairs.

Revolutionary Constitutional Reign

Louis XVI's era as a constitutional monarch remains a less explored period in scholarly accounts, primarily due to uncertainties surrounding his actions during this time. His declaration left behind in the Tuileries conveyed a sense of provisional actions, with the palace representing more of a confinement than a home. This period he stood as a testament to the deliberations of an institution in its final stages.

The pivotal moment arrived on October 5, 1789, when an enraged Parisian mob, instigated by revolutionaries, stormed the Palace of Versailles, where the royal family resided. They intended to harm the Queen, who symbolized the despised aspects of the Ancien Régime due to her lavish lifestyle. Lafayette, leading the Garde Nationale, intervened to defuse the situation, leading to the relocation of the King and his family to the Tuileries Palace in Paris, driven by the belief that proximity to the people would ensure greater accountability.

The Revolution marked a significant departure from the centuries-old divine right principle entrenched in the French monarchy, embracing principles of popular sovereignty. Despite opposition from rural France and neighboring governments, support for the monarchy dwindled, especially within Paris and among the philosophes in the National Assembly. Some leading figures, like Honoré Mirabeau, clandestinely plotted with the Crown to revive its authority within a new constitutional framework.

From 1791, Montmorin, Minister of Foreign Affairs, initiated clandestine efforts to resist the revolutionary forces, diverting funds from the National Assembly's allocated Liste Civile for preserving the monarchy. Collaborators like Arnault Laporte and later Maximilien Radix de Sainte-Foix attempted to advise Louis XVI in secret, albeit unsuccessfully. The discovery of these schemes, including the "armoire de fer," revealed their futile attempts to stabilize the monarchy.

Mirabeau's death and Louis XVI's indecisiveness disrupted negotiations between the Crown and moderate politicians. The plans for a constitutional monarchy faltered, exacerbated by the King's detachment from the new democratic regime due to their treatment and his confinement in the Tuileries. He felt marginalized, particularly by the state's refusal to grant him his preferred confessors and priests, accentuating the growing rift between the monarchy and the new government.

Escape Attempt of Louis XVI (June 1791)

In June 1791, Louis XVI, together with his family, attempted a secretive escape from Paris to Montmédy, aiming to join émigrés and seek safety in the stronghold. Orchestrated by Axel von Fersen, a Swedish nobleman and presumed secret lover of Queen Marie-Antoinette, the escape sought to evade measures imposed by the National Assembly and counter the escalating tensions in Paris.

National Assembly's Reaction

The National Assembly quickly propagated the theory that the King had been abducted, diverting attention from the progressing Constitution. They ordered the arrest of the carriage despite Louis XVI leaving behind a manifesto justifying his escape. La Fayette censored the text, and efforts were made to intercept the royal carriage via letters sent throughout the country.

Failure and Arrest at Varennes-en-Argonne

Louis XVI's indecision, delays, and misinterpretations led to the escape's failure. Within 24 hours, the royal family was apprehended at Varennes-en-Argonne after Jean-Baptiste Drouet recognized them. They were brought back to Paris on June 25, perceived as traitors, and subjected to stringent house arrest at the Tuileries upon their return.

Impact and Fallout

The failed escape prompted intense emotions in France, sparking anxiety, violence, and an impending sense of war. The realization that the King, previously seen as a divine figure governing by God's will, was now seen as repudiating the Revolution fueled the radicalization of French sentiments, ushering in the prominence of republicanism.

Foreign Reactions and Declarations

Amid internal turmoil, foreign powers closely monitored France's developments. Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II initially observed the Revolution with calmness but grew increasingly uneasy as it radicalized. The Declaration of Pillnitz issued by Leopold and Frederick William II of Prussia expressed concern for Louis and his family, which Parisian revolutionaries perceived as a foreign attempt to undermine French sovereignty.

Escalation to War and Brunswick Manifesto

The Legislative Assembly, supported by Louis XVI, declared war on Austria in April 1792. The invasion of the Austrian Netherlands was planned but was marred by disorganization within the revolutionary army. Subsequently, a Prussian-Austrian army assembled and initiated an invasion, capturing Longwy and Verdun. The situation worsened as the Duke of Brunswick's manifesto, aimed at restoring the King's powers, instead exacerbated suspicions of collusion between Louis and foreign powers, further undermining his position.

Tuileries Palace Storming and Family's Retreat

On August 10, an armed mob stormed the Tuileries Palace, supported by the Insurrectional Paris Commune. Faced with upheaval, the royal family sought refuge with the Legislative Assembly, marking a pivotal moment in the intensification of the Revolution.

Imprisonment, Trial, Execution, and Burial of Louis XVI (1792-1793)

Arrest and Imprisonment at the Temple

Louis XVI was officially arrested on August 13, 1792, and confined in the Temple, an ancient Parisian fortress converted into a prison. With the declaration of France as a republic on September 21, the monarchy was abolished, and Louis was stripped of his titles, recognized after that as Citoyen Louis Capet.

Debate for Execution

The Girondins favored retaining the deposed King as both a hostage and an assurance for the future. However, more radical factions pushed for Louis's immediate execution. A trial before the National Convention was proposed, symbolizing the Revolution's judgment of the monarchy, resulting in his trial becoming a symbolic event.

Events Leading to Trial

The Battle of Valmy and the revelation of an iron chest at the Tuileries Palace containing incriminating documents altered perceptions. These events discredited Louis XVI and shifted the Girondins' stance, culminating in the certainty of his trial.

Louis XVI's Trial and Verdict

Amidst the trial on December 11, Louis faced charges of high treason and crimes against the state. Despite expecting conviction, he and his defense aimed to uphold his reputation as a benevolent king. The Convention voted decisively on January 15, 1793, with an overwhelming majority finding Louis guilty.

Execution and Burial

Louis XVI, aged 38, was guillotined on January 21, 1793, at the Place de la Révolution. Displaying dignity and resignation, he briefly spoke, pardoning those responsible for his death and proclaiming his innocence. He was swiftly beheaded, with conflicting accounts regarding the smoothness of the execution.

Post-Execution Events

Following his beheading, Louis's remains were interred in the Madeleine cemetery before being transferred to the Basilica of St Denis in 1815, where the deceased monarch and Marie Antoinette found their final resting Place. A memorial, the Chapelle expiatory, commemorating their deaths, was erected on the former cemetery site.

Historical Verification

Reports of onlookers collecting Louis XVI's blood were validated in 2012 via DNA comparisons, linking the blood to the mummified head of his ancestor, Henry IV of France. Allegedly, handkerchiefs soaked in Louis's blood were preserved in a squash gourd, commemorating the revolutionaries' heroes.

Reputation and Historical Perspectives

The 19th-century historian Jules Michelet, along with Alphonse de Lamartine, believed that the sympathy evoked by Louis XVI's execution contributed to the later restoration of the French monarchy. Despite differing sociopolitical views, both writers argued that sparing the lives of the royal family could have mitigated the radicalization of revolutionary violence and lessened divisions among the French. In the 20th century, Albert Camus mourned the end of the role of God in history, signified by Louis's execution. At the same time, Jean-François Lyotard saw it as the starting point of all French thought, marking the beginning of French modernity under the shadow of a crime.

Post-Revolutionary Commemorations

Louis's daughter, Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte, the future Duchess of Angoulême, survived the Revolution and actively advocated for her father's canonization as a saint by the Catholic Church. Despite Pope Pius VI describing Louis as a martyr in 1793, hopes of canonization were dashed in 1820 due to the difficulty of proving that his execution resulted from religious rather than political reasons.

Other commemorations include musical compositions such as Luigi Cherubini's Requiem in C minor (1816) and Jean-Paul-Égide Martini's Requiem for Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (1815). Talleyrand commissioned a Requiem by Sigismund von Neukomm in 1815. Additionally, Paul Wranitzky's Symphony Op. 31 (1797) features a section titled "The Funeral March for the Death of King Louis XVI."

Kentucky's Connection and City Naming

The city of Louisville, Kentucky, was named in honor of Louis XVI by the Virginia General Assembly in 1780. At that time, Kentucky was part of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the city's name reflected the French King's support for the American side during the Revolutionary War.

Film Portrayals

Louis XVI has been portrayed in various films throughout cinematic history. Notable depictions include Stuart Holmes in "Captain of the Guard" (1930), Robert Morley in "Marie Antoinette" (1938), and Jason Schwartzman in "Marie Antoinette" (2006). Different films have presented varied perspectives, ranging from portraying Louis as a bumbling king to comedic portrayals in works like Mel Brooks's "The History of the World Part 1" (1981) and Sacha Guitry's "Si Versailles m'étaitconté.

Literary Depictions

Louis XVI has been a recurring figure in literature, appearing in various alternate history novels such as Hilaire Belloc's "If Drouet's Cart Had Stuck" and André Maurois's "If Louis XVI Had Had an Atom of Firmness," both envisioning scenarios where Louis survives and continues to reign into the early 19th century. Additionally, Louis is featured in Robert Lawson's children's book "Ben and Me," although absent from its 1953 animated short film adaptation.

Ancestral Discoveries

Research conducted by Larmuseau et al. in 2013 explored the Y-DNA of three living House of Bourbon members tracing lineage from Louis XIII of France through King Louis Philippe I and Louis XIV via Philip V of Spain. The study concluded that all three individuals shared the same STR haplotype and belonged to haplogroup R1b (R-M343), specifically sub-haplogroup R1b1b2a1a1b* (R-Z381*). These findings contradicted an earlier DNA analysis by Laluez-Fo et al. in 2010, which examined a handkerchief reportedly dipped in the presumed blood of Louis XVI after his execution.

Royal Arms

Louis XVI assumed the royal coat of arms of France & Navarre upon ascending the throne. The elements included:

• Crest: The Royal Crown of France.
• Helm: An opened gold helmet adorned with blue and gold mantling.
• Escutcheon: Comprising Azure, three fleurs-de-lis Or (representing France) impaling Gules on a chain in cross saltire and orle Or an emerald Proper (signifying Navarre).
• Supporters: Two angels, serving as heralds for the realms, holding standards and wearing tabards displaying the arms of France and Navarre, standing atop puffs of cloud.
• Motto: Inscribed in gold on a blue ribbon as "MONTJOIE SAINT DENIS," echoing France's war cry and acknowledging the significance of Saint-Denis abbey where the oriflamme was kept.
• Orders: Surrounded by the chains of the Order of Saint Michael and the Order of the Holy Spirit, both renowned as the ordres du roi.
• Additional Elements: A pavilion armoyé with the Royal Crown above, with a royal blue mantle adorned with fleurs-de-lis Or lined internally with ermine.
• Banner: The Royal Standard of the King.

Banner Details

The style "King of the French" was established by the National Assembly on November 9, 1789, following approval on October 10. This title was formalized in the French Constitution on September 3, 1791, and subsequently ratified by the King on September 14.

Conclusion

Louis XVI's life was incredibly intricate, especially during the French Revolution. He ruled during a time when the monarchy's absolute power was diminishing, and revolutionary ideas were transforming France.

Throughout his reign, Louis faced numerous challenges, including financial difficulties and growing dissatisfaction among the people. His attempts to tackle these problems were met with resistance, and his rule became associated with the extravagance of the royal court and France's financial woes. The Revolution brought significant change and turmoil. Louis tried to establish a constitutional monarchy but eventually fled from Paris, highlighting the increasing gap between the monarchy and the revolutionaries.