Otto von Bismarck

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, also referred to as Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, and Duke of Lauenburg, was a prominent statesman and diplomat from Prussia, who later went on to establish Germany and make significant contributions towards the unification of the country. He is widely known for his role in the establishment of the German Empire.

Birth

Otto was born on April 1, 1815, and passed away on July 30, 1898.

Early Life

Otto von Bismarck, a Junker landowner, rose quickly in Prussian politics and served as the minister-president and foreign minister of Prussia from 1862 to 1890. He served as the Prussian ambassador to Russia and France and in both houses of the Prussian parliament. Bismarck played a major role in the unification of Germany in 1871. He held the position of the first chancellor of the German Empire until 1890 and had a significant influence on European affairs throughout his tenure. From 1867 to 1871, he served as the chancellor of the North German Confederation, working closely with King Wilhelm I of Prussia to unite the various German states. Bismarck played a crucial part in the unification of Germany in 1871. He was the first chancellor of the German Empire until 1890, and during his tenure, he had a dominant influence on European affairs. Prior to this, from 1867 to 1871, he was the chancellor of the North German Confederation, where he worked with King Wilhelm I of Prussia to bring together the various German states. Bismarck provoked three short but decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France.

Following Prussia's defeat of Austria, Bismarck replaced the German Confederation with the North German Confederation, which aligned the smaller North German states with Prussia but excluded Austria.

With the support of the independent South German states, Prussia defeated France and formed the German Empire, effectively unifying Germany while excluding Austria. Bismarck employed balance-of-power diplomacy to maintain Germany's position in a peaceful Europe. However, the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine fueled French revanchism and Germanophobia. Bismarck's Realpolitik and authoritative rule at home earned him the nickname "Iron Chancellor."

Bismarck disliked colonialism because he believed it would consume German resources without reaping the benefits. He reluctantly established an overseas empire due to pressure from both elites and the masses.

When Bismarck turned 30, he formed a close friendship with Marie von Thadden-Trieglaff. She was newly married to one of his friends, Moritz von Blanckenburg. Shortly after her death, Bismarck proposed to Marie's cousin, Johanna von Puttkamer (1824-1894), whom he married in 1847. The couple had three children: Marie, Herbert, and Wilhelm. Johanna was a shy and deeply religious woman, although she was known for her sharp tongue in later life.

As a tactical move in his domestic politics, Bismarck established the first welfare state in the modern world to weaken his socialist adversaries. During the 1870s, he allied with the anti-Catholic Liberals who were in favor of low tariffs and waged war against the Catholic Church, which was known as the Kulturkampf or "culture struggle." This attempt failed, as the Catholics formed the powerful German Centre Party and used universal male suffrage to gain a bloc of seats. Bismarck put an end to the Kulturkampf, broke away from the Liberals, and joined hands with the Centre Party to tackle the Socialists.

Although the Imperial Reichstag was elected by universal male suffrage, it did not have any control over government policies. Bismarck did not trust democracy, and he preferred to rule through a strong and well-trained bureaucracy. The power rested in the hands of the traditional Junker elite. In 1888, the German throne passed from Wilhelm I to Friedrich III to Wilhelm II, which came to be known as the Year of the Three Emperors. The new emperor ousted Bismarck from office in 1890. Bismarck retired to write his memoirs.

Bismarck is famously known for his significant role in the unification of Germany. As the head of Prussia and later Germany, Bismarck was not only a far-sighted national and international leader but also adept at handling complex situations in the short term. He was revered by German nationalists, who constructed numerous monuments in his honor. Historians laud him for his vision and his instrumental role in uniting Germany.

Additionally, they give him credit for preserving peace in Europe through his skilled diplomacy. However, Bismarck's domestic policies, such as the persecution of Catholics and the centralization of executive power, have drawn criticism, which some have described as Caesarist. Moreover, opponents of German nationalism have criticized him as German nationalism became deeply ingrained in the country's culture, driving it to pursue aggressive nationalistic policies in both World Wars.

Early Years in Prussia

Bismarck was born in 1815 on the family estate of Schönhausen, located in Prussian Saxony, west of Berlin. Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck (1771-1845) was not only an estate owner but also a former Prussian military officer. His contribution to the military and his ownership of the estate are worth mentioning and remembering. His mother, Wilhelmine Luise Mencken (1789-1839), was well-educated and the daughter of a senior government official in Berlin. In 1816, Bismarck's family moved to their estate, Kniephof, in Pomerania. He spent his childhood in a peaceful rural setting.

Bismarck's family moved to Kniephof in 1816. He spent his childhood there in a peaceful rural setting.

Bismarck had two siblings: an older brother named Bernhard (1810-1893) and a younger sister named Malwine (1827-1908). Although Bismarck appeared to the world as a typical backwoods Prussian Junker, he was well-educated and cosmopolitan with a talent for conversation. He encouraged this image by wearing military uniforms. Additionally, Bismarck knew several languages, including English, French, Italian, Polish, and Russian.

Bismarck received his education at Johann Ernst Plamann's elementary school and later at the Friedrich-Wilhelm and Graues Kloster secondary schools. He studied law at the University of Göttingen from 1832 to 1833, where he was a member of the Corps Hannovera. Bismarck then enrolled at the University of Berlin from 1833 to 1835. In 1838, he studied agriculture at the University of Greifswald while stationed there as an army reservist.

During his time at Göttingen, Bismarck became friends with an American student named John Lothrop Motley. Motley later became a prominent historian and diplomat but remained close to Bismarck. In 1839, Motley wrote Morton's Hope, a novel that described Bismarck as a charming but reckless young man with eccentricities.

Although he aspired to become a diplomat, Bismarck began his practical training as a lawyer in Aachen and Potsdam. However, he soon resigned after taking unauthorized leave to pursue two English girls, Laura Russell, niece of the Duke of Cleveland, and Isabella Loraine-Smith, daughter of a wealthy clergyman, which put his career in jeopardy. "In 1838, Bismarck embarked on a journey of self-discovery by joining the Prussian Army as a volunteer for a year. He then rose to the position of an officer in the Landwehr (reserve), proving that with hard work and dedication, anything is possible." After his mother died in his mid-twenties, he returned to manage the family estates at Schönhausen.

Bismarck became close friends with Marie von Thadden-Trieglaff when he was around 30 years old. Marie was newly married to one of Bismarck's friends, Moritz von Blanckenburg. After Marie passed away, Bismarck proposed to Marie's cousin, Johanna von Puttkamer, and they got married on July 28, 1847, in Alt-Kolziglow (modern Kołczygłowy). Johanna and Bismarck had a long and happy marriage and were blessed with three children: Marie (born in 1847), Herbert (born in 1849), and Wilhelm (born in 1852). Johanna was a shy and deeply religious woman, but she was also known for her sharp tongue in later life.

Early Political career

As a Young politician

In 1847, at the age of thirty-two, Bismarck was selected to represent the newly formed Prussian legislature, the Vereinigter Landtag. He quickly gained a reputation as a royalist and reactionary politician with a talent for sharp-tongued rhetoric. Bismarck openly advocated the idea that the monarch had a divine right to rule. His nomination was arranged by the Gerlach brothers, who were also Pietist Lutherans. The ultra-conservative faction in question was a group of individuals who held staunch traditionalist beliefs and were often referred to as the "Kreuzzeitung." This moniker was derived from the name of their primary newspaper, the Neue Preußische Zeitung, which prominently displayed an Iron Cross on its cover. The faction was known to be particularly rigid in its adherence to conservative values and was a significant force in shaping the political and social landscape of its time.

During March in the year 1848, a significant and transformative revolution took place in Prussia, a powerful nation situated in Central Europe. This uprising was part of a wider wave of revolutions that swept through several countries across the continent, collectively known as the Revolutions of 1848. The events that unfolded during this period were marked by social unrest, political turmoil, and calls for greater democracy and individual rights. The revolution completely overwhelmed King Frederick William IV. Initially, the monarch had considered using armed forces to suppress the rebellion, but he ultimately chose not to leave Berlin for the safety of military headquarters at Potsdam.

According to Bismarck's account, the Prussian officers were so outraged when they heard that the King was not planning to quell the revolution through military force that they began to rattle their sabers within their scabbards loudly. This displays the intense passion and loyalty these officers had for their country and their desire to maintain order and stability by any means necessary.

In an effort to appease the liberals, the King demonstrated a willingness to compromise by offering a series of concessions. One of the most significant gestures was his agreement to wear the black-red-gold revolutionary colors, which have since become emblematic of Germany. Additionally, he pledged to promulgate a constitution, thus establishing a framework for democratic governance. He also agreed to the merging of Prussia and other German states into a single nation-state, which was a key demand of the liberal movement. Finally, the appointment of Gottfried Ludolf Camphausen, a well-known liberal, as Minister President was seen as a positive step towards inclusivity and diversity within the government.

Initially, Bismarck attempted to form an army by raising the peasants of his estate to march on Berlin in the name of the King. He even went to Berlin in disguise to offer his services, but instead, he was instructed to arrange food supplies for the Army from his estates in case they were needed.

During the period in question, Prince Wilhelm, the King's younger brother, fled to England. Bismarck attempted to persuade Augusta, the wife of Wilhelm, to place their teenage son, Frederick William, on the Prussian throne instead of Frederick William IV, who was a prominent political figure at the time. Despite Bismarck's efforts, Augusta refused and harbored ill feelings towards him as a result. However, Bismarck later played a key role in reconciling Wilhelm and his brother, the King, and restoring their working relationship.

At this point, Bismarck had yet to be elected to the House of Representatives, which was the lower chamber of the newly established Prussian legislature. Meanwhile, the liberal movement, which had gained momentum earlier, fell apart due to internal conflicts by the end of 1848. On the other hand, the conservatives, who had previously been in the minority, regrouped and formed an influential group of advisers called the "Camarilla" around the King. After regaining control of Berlin, the revolutionaries were granted a constitution, but its provisions fell far below their demands.

Bismarck became the Landtag in 1849. During this time, he opposed the unification of Germany, fearing that Prussia would lose its independence in the process. He represented Prussia at the Erfurt Parliament, where German states gathered to discuss plans for better opposition to their proposals. Unfortunately, the parliament failed to bring about unification because it needed more support from the two most important German states, Prussia and Austria.

In September 1850, Prussia experienced a dispute over the Electorate of Hesse, which is known as the Hesse Crisis of 1850. In an attempt to unify Germany under Prussian leadership, Prussia's Foreign Minister Joseph von Radowitz proposed a plan which Russia backed. However, Austria opposed the plan and humiliated Prussia, forcing them to back down. As a result, the proposed plan for the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was abandoned.

Bismarck was appointed as Prussia's envoy to the German Confederation in Frankfurt in 1851. While in Frankfurt, he disagreed with Georg von Vincke, which resulted in a duel between them. Carl von Bodelschwingh served as an impartial party, and the duel ended without injury. During his eight years in Frankfurt, Bismarck's political opinions changed, as detailed in the numerous lengthy memoranda he sent to his ministerial superiors in Berlin.

After distancing himself from his ultra-conservative Prussian associates, Bismarck became less reactionary and more practical. He realized that to counterbalance Austria's newly restored influence, Prussia needed to form alliances with other German states. Consequently, Bismarck became more receptive to the idea of a united German nation. In due course, he came to believe that the conservatives needed to spearhead the creation of a unified nation to avoid being overshadowed. He also believed that middle-class liberals were more interested in a unified Germany than in breaking the hold of the traditional forces over society.

Bismarck was very diligent in maintaining good relations with both Russia and France despite his conservative friends, the Gerlachs, disapproving of France. He understood the significance of having a strong bond with France in order to intimidate Austria and prevent France from forming a coalition with Russia. Bismarck famously wrote a letter to Leopold von Gerlach, stating that it would be unwise to play chess while having 16 of the 64 squares out of bounds. Ironically, after 1871, France became Germany's permanent adversary, eventually forming an alliance with Russia against Germany in the 1890s.

Relationships

Bismarck worked to maintain a friendly relationship between Russia and a working relationship with France under Napoleon III's rule. Although his conservative friends, the Gerlachs, did not support this, it was necessary to threaten Austria and prevent France from allying with Russia. In a letter addressed to Leopold von Gerlach, Bismarck expressed his belief that playing chess with 16 out-of-bounds squares was a foolish practice. The analogy he used highlights the importance of considering all variables when making decisions, as neglecting even a few could result in unfavorable outcomes. Ironically, after Germany was formed in 1871, France became a permanent enemy and eventually allied with Russia against Germany in the 1890s.

During the Crimean War in the mid-1850s, in the peace talk of Paris, Prussia was almost not invited, and Bismarck was alarmed by Prussia's isolation. This fear of being isolated repeated itself during the Great Eastern Crisis of the 1870s, and it later became a factor in Bismarck's decision to sign the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879.

In 1857, Frederick William IV suffered a paralyzing stroke, and his brother Wilhelm became the new ruler of Prussia as Regent. As a moderate ruler, Wilhelm was initially seen. He was friends with liberal Britain, which was symbolized by the recent marriage of his son, Frederick William, to Queen Victoria's eldest daughter. Wilhelm brought in new ministers known as the Wochenblatt, who were moderate conservatives, as part of his "New Course."

After being replaced as envoy in Frankfurt, Bismarck was made Prussia's ambassador to the Russian Empire. In 1859, during the Italian War, a promotion left him in a powerless position as France's aggressive military tactics forced Austria out of Lombardy. Meanwhile, Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, saw an opportunity to expand the borders of his country. He suggested that Prussia should take advantage of Austria's weakened state by extending its borders "as far south as Lake Constance," which is located on the Swiss border. However, Prussia chose to deploy troops in the Rhineland to prevent further French advancements into Venetia.

During his four-year stay in St. Petersburg, Bismarck had a botched medical treatment that almost cost him his leg. He also encountered his future rival, Prince Alexander Gorchakov, who had previously served as the Russian representative in Frankfurt in the early 1850s. Following the appointment of the Regent, Helmuth von Moltke was chosen as the new Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army, while Albrecht von Roon was appointed as the Minister of War. Their primary duty was to reorganize the Army. "Through their collective efforts and unwavering commitment in the next 12 years, Bismarck, Moltke, and Roon brought about a remarkable transformation in Prussia, inspiring generations to come."

Although Bismarck spent a long time abroad, he was still aware of what was happening in Germany thanks to his friendship and political alliance with Roon. In May 1862, he became an ambassador to France, which allowed him to meet Napoleon III, and also visited England that summer, where he met Prime Minister Palmerston, Foreign Secretary Earl Russell, and Conservative politician Benjamin Disraeli. These visits were significant as they gave Bismarck the opportunity to assess his adversaries.

Minister President of Prussia

Prince Wilhelm became the King of Prussia after his brother, Frederick Wilhelm IV, died in 1861. However, his reign was marked by tension between him and the liberal Prussian Landtag. In 1862, a crisis emerged when the Landtag refused to approve funds for the Army's proposed reorganization. Despite the King's ministers' efforts to convince the legislators to pass the budget, they failed, and the King was unwilling to make any concessions.

In response, Wilhelm threatened to abdicate in favor of Crown Prince Frederick William, his son, who was against it. Frederick believed that Bismarck was the only politician capable of handling the crisis. However, Wilhelm was hesitant to appoint a person who demanded complete control over foreign affairs. It was only when the Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Representatives) overwhelmingly rejected the proposed budget in September 1862 that Wilhelm decided to seek Bismarck's advice. Upon Roon's advice, Wilhelm appointed Bismarck as the president and Foreign Minister on September 23, 1862.

During a time when the relationships between Great Britain, France, Austria, and Russia were shattered due to the Crimean War and the First Italian War of Independence, Bismarck, Roon, and Moltke took control.

In the midst of geopolitical turmoil and instability, a seismic shift occurred in the balance of power in Europe. The emergence of the German Empire as the foremost continental power, second only to Russia, was the result of a meticulously planned and executed strategy. This effort was spearheaded by a trio of visionary leaders - Bismarck, Roon, and Moltke - who worked in tandem to achieve their shared goal.

Bismarck's masterful diplomacy was complemented by Roon's bold restructuring of the Army and Moltke's brilliant military strategy. Together, they succeeded in transforming Germany into the preeminent power in Europe, leaving an indelible mark on the continent's history.

Bismarck faced initial distrust from the king and crown prince, as well as opposition from Queen Augusta. However, he was able to gain strong influence over the King through his charisma and persuasive abilities. Bismarck's main objective was to maintain the King's authority by resolving the budget standoff in his favor, even if it meant taking extralegal measures.

According to the constitution, the budget could only be passed if both the King and the legislature agreed on its terms. Bismarck argued that since the constitution did not provide for situations where lawmakers failed to approve a budget, there was a "legal loophole" that allowed him to apply the previous year's budget to keep the government functioning. Thus, based on the 1861 budget, tax collection continued for four years.

Bismarck's conflict with the legislators grew more intense in the following years. Following the Alvensleben Convention of 1863, tensions rose between the House of Representatives and Bismarck. Despite attempts to find a compromise, the House concluded that an agreement could not be reached. In response, the King took drastic action and dissolved the Landtag. The King accused the Landtag of overstepping its constitutional boundaries by attempting to gain control over the ministry, which was responsible solely to the King. This move by the King was seen as a significant power play, with the Landtag losing its ability to govern and the King consolidating his control over the government.

In an attempt to silence his critics, Bismarck issued a proclamation that restricted the freedom of the press. This move was met with public opposition, even from the crown prince. Despite his efforts to quell dissent, Bismarck remained an unpopular politician. In October 1863, his supporters fared poorly in the elections, where a liberal coalition led by the Progress Party emerged victorious, winning over two-thirds of the seats. This outcome marked a significant shift in political power, signaling a growing discontent with Bismarck and his policies.

The House made repeated calls for Bismarck's dismissal, but the King supported him, fearing that if he dismissed the Minister President, he would most likely be succeeded by a liberal.

Bismarck: Memory and Myth

Bismarck, a prominent German figure until the 1930s, is widely regarded as the hero of the 1860s. He was known for defeating all adversaries, especially France, and for unifying Germany, making it the most powerful military and diplomatic force across the globe. While Bismarck's devotion to the cause of European peace after 1871 is not commemorated through monuments, his legacy is remembered in other ways across Germany.

Bismarck's fellow Junkers, who were disappointed after 1871 as Prussia became engulfed and overshadowed by the German Empire, form one such group of people with memories of him. Another group is the liberal intellectuals, who might have been a minority but held powerful positions in universities and business establishments. They celebrated Bismarck's accomplishment of establishing a national state, a constitutional monarchy, and the rule of law, which prevented revolution and marginalized radicalism.

Bismarck's antagonism towards social democrats and labor leaders made him their bête noire. His policies during the Kulturkampf also made Catholics distrustful of him. The Poles, in particular, were very negative towards him due to his Germanisation programs.